Case Studies
Hurricane Ida and Extreme Rainfall in New York City: Uneven Vulnerabilities
The effects of Hurricane Ida revealed the challenges that New York City and New York State face in helping underserved populations recover from climate-related disasters.
Hurricane Ida struck the United States in the summer of 2021 as a Category 4 storm. On August 29, 2021, the remnants of Hurricane Ida dropped 3.15 inches in one hour on Central Park—a record amount of rain for the New York City metropolitan area.1 The storm caused massive localized flooding, considerable damage to homes and communities, and the loss of 56 lives in the Northeast—32 people in New Jersey, 18 in New York, 5 in Pennsylvania, and 1 in Connecticut.2
The unprecedented rate of rainfall in New York City overwhelmed the sewer system, resulting in flooded streets and buildings.1 The flooding predominantly damaged housing units and businesses in Queens, Brooklyn, northwest Nassau County, and southeast Westchester County. Some areas were not known to be at high risk of flooding according to flood maps,3,4 and others were only recently identified as most vulnerable to increased flooding due to climate change.5,6 As a result, many of the damaged homes and businesses lacked flood insurance. The flooding in these areas revealed differences in exposure to flood impacts, especially for low-lying neighborhoods and areas with insufficient stormwater infrastructure. The neighborhoods that were most heavily affected in Brooklyn and Queens are home to large numbers of low- to moderate-income immigrants.7 According to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), most of the people who died in New York City:
Highlights
- Hurricane Ida highlighted unequal exposure to flood impacts, gaps in data, and unequal access to disaster recovery resources.
- Low-lying neighborhoods and areas with insufficient stormwater infrastructure experienced substantial impacts that specifically affected low-income, immigrant, and undocumented populations. Some of the affected areas were not shown as high risk for flooding on flood maps and many residents did not have flood insurance.
- A lack of resources for undocumented households and other vulnerable groups to recover from climate disasters complicates equitable disaster recovery.
.. were in flooded basement apartments, which often serve as relatively affordable—though many illegal—homes in one of the nation’s most expensive housing markets….The disastrous impact of Ida on New York City highlights exactly how the climate crisis exacerbates an inequality crisis. In the city, among the people most at risk during flash floods are those living in off-the-books basement dwellings that don’t meet the safety codes. The majority are working-class, immigrants and low-income families that are driven to illegal basement dwellings.7
Hurricane Ida revealed that it is challenging to determine the number of households affected by flooding when noncitizens in mixed-status families are at risk of deportation and the official number of housing units does not include illegal basement apartments.8 Undocumented immigrants are “disproportionately affected by racial discrimination, exploitation, economic hardships, [limited English] proficiency, and fear of deportation in their everyday lives.”9 Through the passage of New York City Local Law 1004, the city has made efforts to create and modify habitable apartments in basements and cellars as part of a demonstration program it launched in East New York in 2019. However, as of this writing, the program has not expanded citywide.10
Even if all immigrant households and illegal basement dwelling units in New York City were known, other factors prevent marginalized populations from receiving disaster recovery resources. Many providers of disaster recovery assistance, including the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), restrict direct and financial disaster assistance to U.S. citizens, noncitizen nationals, and qualified noncitizens.11 Eligibility requirements for federal housing assistance varies for noncitizens.12 These assistance determinations for mixed-status families can also change from one presidential administration to another.
New York State and New York City created the Hurricane Ida Relief Fund to assist storm victims who were ineligible for FEMA relief aid, including those excluded from federal assistance because of their immigration status.13 However, it took several months for applicants to be found eligible and receive assistance.14 By the middle of 2022, the fund was closed to new applicants and had disbursed less than 10% of its funds to those in need.15
The U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) recently awarded disaster recovery funds to New York City ($188 million) and New York State ($41 million) to provide further assistance to those affected by Hurricane Ida. However, both the city and the state must create action plans that provide details about unmet needs and proposed program budgets before being allowed to use the funds.16 Since HUD funds are considered the funds of last resort for disaster recovery, households cannot receive direct assistance until they account for any prior assistance from flood insurance companies, FEMA Individual Assistance, loans from the U.S. Small Business Administration, and other funding sources. Recovery efforts are likely to take years and are unlikely to fully compensate individuals for the losses they incurred during Hurricane Ida. This is especially true for marginalized populations and residents living in mixed-status families. These factors complicate efforts to recover from Ida in an equitable way.
References
1. In pictures: Ida’s remnants wreak havoc in the East. (2021, September 3). CNN. https://www.cnn.com/2021/09/02/weather/gallery/ida-flooding-tornado-northeast/index.html
2. Hanchey, A., Schnall, A., Bayleyegn, T., Jiva, S., Khan, A., Siegel, V., Funk, R., & Svendsen, E. (2021). Notes from the field: Deaths related to Hurricane Ida reported by media—nine states, August 29–September 9, 2021. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 70(39), 1385–1386. http://dx.doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.mm7039a3
3. FloodHelpNY. (n.d.). FloodHelpNY. Retrieved October 17, 2022, from https://www.floodhelpny.org
4. New York City Mayor’s Office of Management and Budget. (2023). CDBG-DR action plan for the remnants of Hurricane Ida: Substantial amendment 1 [Public comment version]. https://www.nyc.gov/assets/cdbgdr/documents/NYC_Hurricane_Ida_Action_Plan_SA1.pdf
5. Negret, M., & McNulty, M. (2021, July 15). Improving stormwater management in the New York City subway. RPA. https://rpa.org/latest/lab/flooding-stormwater-in-new-york-city-subway
6. New York State Department of Environmental Conservation. (n.d.). Climate change effects and impacts. Retrieved July 3, 2023, from https://dec.ny.gov/environmental-protection/climate-change/effects-impacts
7. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. (2022, May 3). In harm’s way: Hurricane Ida’s impact on socially vulnerable communities. Retrieved June 20, 2022, from https://storymaps.arcgis.com/stories/780e11bd19cc4dfca54ac8fb1d5e926f
8. Rubiano A., M. P. (2021, October 12). Facing floods and fires, undocumented immigrants have nowhere to turn for help. Grist. https://grist.org/equity/undocumented-immigrants-have-nowhere-to-turn-for-help-after-climate-emergencies/
9. Méndez, M., Flores-Haro, G., & Zucker, L. (2020). The (in)visible victims of disaster: Understanding the vulnerability of undocumented Latino/a and indigenous immigrants. Geoforum, 116, 50–62. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoforum.2020.07.007
10. NYU Furman Center. (n.d.). Basement conversion program. Directory of NYC Housing Programs. Retrieved October 17, 2022, from https://furmancenter.org/coredata/directory/entry/basement-conversion-program
11. Federal Emergency Management Agency. (n.d.). Qualifying for disaster assistance: Citizenship and immigration status flyer. Retrieved October 17, 2022, from https://www.fema.gov/assistance/individual/program/citizenship-immigration-status/flyers
12. McCarty, M., & Kolker, A. F. (2020). Noncitizen eligibility for federal housing programs (R46462). Congressional Research Service. https://sgp.fas.org/crs/misc/R46462.pdf
13. Feldman, A. E. (2022, February 4). $27M Ida relief fund for undocumented residents has given fraction of money. Spectrum News. https://www.ny1.com/nyc/all-boroughs/news/2022/02/03/state-s–27m-ida-relief-fund-for-undocumented-immigrants-has-given-out-a-fraction-its-money
14. Parra, D. (2022, February 8). What will happen to the millions in unspent Ida aid for NY immigrants? City Limits. https://citylimits.org/2022/02/08/what-will-happen-to-nys-23m-in-unspent-ida-aid-for-immigrants/
15. Parra, D. (2022, May 10). New York’s $27 million Ida relief fund for immigrants closes, disbursing less than $2 million. City Limits. https://citylimits.org/2022/05/10/new-yorks-27-million-ida-relief-fund-for-immigrants-closes-disbursing-less-than-2-million/
16. U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development. (2022). Allocations for Community Development Block Grant disaster recovery and implementation of the CDBG-DR consolidated waivers and alternative requirements notice. Federal Register, 87(100), 31636–31667. https://www.hud.gov/sites/dfiles/CPD/documents/CDBG-DR/87_FR_31636.pdf